Multi Step Flow Theory

Two Step Flow Theory

Further studies on opinion leaders lead to the modification of two step flow concept and interesting multi step flow theory came into being. It was observed that the influence can be multi directional and it is not necessarily be downwards, influence can be upwards or even backwards towards the media as well. The feedback process in which the audience (readers, viewers, listeners etc.) could write to the media suggesting, requesting, appreciating or criticizing things or events. The influence could also be peer to peer where audience with similar opinion, when they share insights with each other. More over the multi step flow concept was seen as having many relay points that is information reaching a member of audience directly or reaching a second hand, third hand or even fourth hand. Many a times the information reaches the mass audience in altogether a different form from the original piece of information. Everyone who passes the information adds his or her own interpretation to it giving it a new meaning.

It is also called the Diffusion of Innovations theory, giving it a new dimension and understanding. Diffusion of innovation theory predicts that media as well as interpersonal contacts provide information and influence opinion and judgment. It focuses on the conditions which increase or decrease the likelihood that a new product, idea or practice will be adopted by members of a given society or culture. Studying how innovation occurs, Everett Rogers (1995) argued that it consists of four stages: INVENTION, DIFFUSSION (communication through the social system), TIME and CONSEQUENCES. The information flows through networks. The nature of networks and the roles of the opinion leaders are important to how easily an innovation will be adopted. Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over a period of time among the members of a social system. An innovation is an idea, practice or product that is perceived to be new by an individual. Communication is a process in which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding.

Adopter’s categories:

1. Innovators

2. Early adopters

3. Early majority

4. Late majority

5. Laggards

It is important to note that both two step flow and multi step flow theory clearly discredit the direct influence of mass media because of the extraneous influences, interpersonal channels and social relations of audience which are often complex, multi directional and multi dimensional.

Example: The rise and fall of fashion trends in the society. The Mass media is used by the advertisers of fashion industry to inform people. The celebrities become opinion leaders by endorsing the fashion accessories and fashion wears by fashion designers in organized fashion shows, Page 3 parties, award functions and other related events. Thus, the information about the design or accessory being cool or hot is passed on to the mass audience who adopt is and make it trend.

Another example can be of diffusion of electronic gadgets like cell phones, i-pods etc.

Origin of Network Theory

A social network includes a set of actors (nodes) and the relationship (ties) between these actors. A Social network created by communication among these nodes and groups of nodes. Social network analysis studies the formal, informal and emergent relationship behavior of people or groups In 1954, Barnes coined the credible concept of social networks. It is also known as Network Analysis, Social Network Analysis, Social Network Theory. Social Network is Complex set of relationships between members of social systems at all scales, from interpersonal to international. Causal pressures are inherent in social structure. Network analysis is a set of methods for detecting and measuring the magnitude of the pressures. It Studies Properties of units between and within units and not properties of these units. Rogers characterizes a communication network as consisting of “interconnected individuals who are linked by patterned communication flows” (1986). A communication network analysis studies “the interpersonal linkages created by the sharing of information in the interpersonal communication structure” (1986), that is, the network. Network analysis focuses on the relationships between people, instead of on characteristics of people. The feelings people have for each other, the exchange of information, or more tangible exchanges such as goods and money. Uncovers Emergent and Informal communication pattern in an organization comparing with formal pattern. Post of a employee influences their exposure to and control over information. Patterns of relationships bring employees into contact with the attitudes and behaviors of other organizational members, these relationships may also help to explain why employees develop certain attitudes toward organizational events or job-related matters

Example: Rogers and Kincaid studied in Korea how women in a small village organized themselves to improve the general living conditions for themselves and their families

Media richness theory

Media richness theory is based on the theory of uncertainty and information processing theory. Media richness theory was first created by Daft & Lengel is (1984).

Media richness theory, the earliest and most representative examples of media capacity theories, emphasizing that the meeting between task ambiguity and perfection of a channel of communication is key for managers to achieve effective communication.

Communication media in the organization vary from one species to another in terms of their information carrying capacity, with a wealth of media can have a high degree of information carrying capacity and leaning media is a low degree rise.

Media richness theory states that when a task ambiguity is high, various interpretations and solutions are possible, and so a medium with a high degree of information carrying capacity is important for the task to be handled effectively. However, when the task ambiguity is low, a medium which is quite lean because the task is predictable and simple.

The two main assumptions of this theory are: people want to overcome the error / confusion (which has two meanings) and uncertainties in the organization and the various media organizations usually used work better for certain tasks than others.

Daft and Lengel presents the use of four criteria into a hierarchy of media perfection, set from high to low degrees of perfection, to describe the type of media capacity to process ambiguous communication within the organization. Media richness theory using four measures to characterize organizational media in connection with the carrying capacity of information:

(1) the speed of the feedback; (speed delivers feedback / feedback can be obtained for an instant)

(2) the capacity to carry multiple cues, such as verbal and nonverbal cues; (capacity to deliver various forms of symbols, both verbal and non-verbal symbols)

(3) the ability to use natural language; and (ability (quality) use as natural as the original language)

(4) the degree of personal focus (level of personal relationships).

Media richness theory is based on the ability of communication media view media to convey information (Trevino, 1987). Media richness theory's focus is on the ability of the media to provide feedback (feedback), non-verbal cues, maintaining the integrity of the message, and presents the expression of emotion.

Media richness theory puts Communication Face-To-Face as the richest communication medium in (the) hierarchy followed by phone, e-mail, letters, notes, memos, special reports, and the latter, flyers and newsletters.

From a strategic management perspective, the theory states that the media perfection made effective managers sensible choices that bring a particular communication medium to a specific goal or task and the degree of perfection required by the task

Semiotics

The meaning of study making and signs and symbols is called semiotics.It investigates into how meaning is created and communicated. Its origins lie in the academic study of how signs and symbols (visual and linguistic) create meaning.

It is a way of seeing the world, and of understanding how the landscape and culture in which we live has a massive impact on all of us unconsciously.

Our actions and thoughts – what we do automatically – are often governed by a complex set of cultural messages and conventions, and dependent upon our ability to interpret them instinctively and instantly.

For instance, when we see the different colours of a traffic light, we automatically know how to react to them. We know this without even thinking about it. But this is a sign which has been established by cultural convention over a long period of time and which we learn as children, and requires a deal of unconscious cultural knowledge to understand its meaning.Viewing and interpreting (or decoding) this sign enables us to navigate the landscape of our streets and society.Everyone is a semiotician, because everyone is constantly unconsciously interpreting the meaning of signs around them – from traffic lights to colours of flags, the shapes of cars, the architecture of buildings, and the design of cereal packaging.And signs don’t only need to be visual – they can be aural or sonic signs too, such as the sound of a police siren, usually heard before the vehicle is seen.We know for instance that the following sign in the West means everything is OK. This can be dated back to its alleged use by Roman emperors to signal whether a gladiator would live (hence be OK). Its reverse – thumbs down – signified death.But in scuba diving this sign means go up to the surface, and by the side of the road it means you want to hitch a ride.

In other words, we need to understand the context in which a sign is communicated in order to comprehend its real meaning, and hence act appropriately. What is going on around the sign is usually as important for us to know as the sign itself in order to interpret its meaning.

Semiotics is a key tool to ensure that intended meanings (of for instance a piece of communication or a new product) are unambiguously understood by the person on the receiving end. Usually there are good reasons if someone doesn’t understand the real intention of a message and semiotics can help unravel that confusion, ensuring clarity of meaning.Semiotics started out as an academic investigation of the meaning of words (linguistics), it moved into examining people’s behaviour (anthropology and psychology), then evolved to become an enquiry into culture and society (sociology and philosophy), following that it moved onto assisting with analyses of cultural products (films, literature, art – critical theory), and finally and more recently became a methodology for researching and analysing consumer behaviour and brand communications.It is from this social science background that Sign Salad emerged. We apply the high-level thinking of semiotics to enable clients to understand the commercial implications of the culture around their brands and its impact upon consumers. Ultimately, we assist with the development of culturally relevant brand strategies and meaningful communication (packaging and point of sale).

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY

In mid 1930’s media scholars found the first theory on Media Effects and the Media Behaviors. During second world wars media plays a vital role in both United States and Germany to made influence in the people’s mind. The Germany Hitler’s Nazi used film industry for Propaganda and they produced lots of movies about their achievements which made a great impact in Germans mind. Later the United States also used its own Hollywood and produced films like “Its Happened one night”, “It’s a wonderful life” and Mr. Smith goes to Washington” to portrait Germany as Evil force which also made impact in Americans Mind. Here media audience accepts the messages directly without any rejection.

Theory :

The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their own knowledge. The message cause the instant reaction from the audience mind without any hesitation is called “Magic Bullet Theory”. The media (needle) injects the message into audience mind and it cause changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the message. Audience are passive and they can’t resist the media message is called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.

Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how audience react towards the message without any hesitation

The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of human nature and it was not based on any empirical findings from research. Few media scholars do not accepting this model because it’s based on assumption rather than any scientific evidence. In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio broadcast “The War of the Worlds” (a famous comic program) by insert a news bulletin which made a widespread reaction and panic among the American Mass audience. Through this investigation he found the media messages may affect or may not affect audience.

“People’s Choice” a study conducted by Lazarsfeld in 1940 about Franklin D. Roosevelt election campaign and the effects of media messages. Through this study Lazarsfeld disproved the Magic Bullet theory and added audience are more influential in interpersonal than a media messages.

SPIRAL OF SILENCE

Originally proposed by German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in1974, Spiral of silence is the term meant to refer to the tendency of people to remain silent when they feel that their views are in opposition to the majority view on a subject. The theory posits that they remain silent for a few reasons:

1. Fear of isolation when the group or public realizes that the individual has a divergent opinion from the status quo.

2. Fear of reprisal or more extreme isolation, in the sense that voicing said opinion might lead to a negative consequence beyond that of mere isolation (loss of a job, status, etc.)

For this theory to be plausible it relies on the idea that in a given situation we all possess a sort of intuitive way of knowing what the prevailing opinion happens to be. The spiral is created or reinforced when someone in the perceived opinion majority speaks out confidently in support of the majority opinion, hence the minority begins to be more and more distanced from a place where they are comfortable to voice their opinion and begin to experience the aforementioned fears.

The spiral effect is experienced insomuch as this activates a downward spiral where fears continually build within the minority opinion holder, hence the minority opinion is never voiced. Since it’s appearing on this blog you could assume that the theory posits that the mass media has a effect on this process, if you’re assuming that… you’re right on. The media plays an important role in this process, especially in dictating or perceptually dictating the majority opinion.

The closer an individual feels their opinion resides to the held majority opinion the more likely they are to be willing to voice it in public discourse. A few other important tenets to mention: this theory relies heavily on the idea that the opinion must have a distinct moral component (i.e. abortion, legalization of _______ ), no one will experience the spiral of silence trying to talk out what toppings to get on their pizza with roommates.

The theory has some weaknesses or at least points of contention, two of the most notable are those of the vocal minority and the internet. The internet,series of tubes – thanks, Al) seemingly levels the playing field, where a minority opinion won’t be felt by the individual as a minority opinion and might be voiced in that arena whereas the individual would have not been so vocal in another place of public discourse. Second, the vocal minority – you know these people, they may be the only one who thinks that cats need to right to vote, but they won’t shut up about it and are seemingly outside of the effects of the Spiral of Silence.

There you have it… Spiral of Silence. Don’t spend it all in one place

Media depends on the social context

Dependency theory was originally proposed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur (1976).This theory merged out of the communication discipline.Dependency theory is one of the first
theory which regards audience as an active part in communication process.The dependency theory is expanded from the theory of Uses and Gratification.According to this theory,there is an internal link between media audience and large social system.

Dependency theory integrates several perspectives: first, it combines perspectives from psychology with ingredients from social categories theory. Second, it integrates systems perspectives with elements from more causal approaches. Third, it combines elements of uses and gratifications research with those of media effects traditions, although its primary focus is less on effects per se than on rationales for why media effects typically are limited. Finally, a contextualist philosophy is incorporated into the theory, which also features traditional concerns with the content of media messages and their effects on audiences. Research generated by this model had tends to be more descriptive than explanatory or predictive.The audience learning from the real life is limited, so they can use media to get more information to fulfil their needs. An extensive use of media generates dependent relation in audience and also Media can able to creating dependence relationship with target audiences to achieve their goals by using their media power

.The degree of dependence is directly proportional to:

§ Individual: The media have ability to satisfy the audience needs. An individual will become more dependent on media, if the medium satisfy his/her needs. Otherwise the media dependence will become less

§ Social Stability: The audience reconsider their beliefs, practice and behaviours when strong social change, conflicts, riot or election which will force to re-evaluate and make new decisions. During this period media dependency is dramatically increased, because there is a strong need for information, support and advice

§ Active audience: In this communication process, the active audience chooses the media dependence on their individual needs and other factors such as economic conditions, society and culture. If alternative source fulfil the audience needs will decrease the media dependence
Process of Creating Dependence:
§ Media attracts individuals by offering the content which is able to fulfil the audience needs for understanding, entertainment and information
§ There is different strength in Dependence relationship. Cognitive motivations encourage the individuals to maintain the level of attention and Affective motivation serves the individuals to enhance the level of satisfaction
§ Both Cognitive and Affective motivation are intensifying the audience to higher level of involvement to enable the information process
Example:
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hits eastern Japan very badly. Due to this natural disaster the whole communication was blocked and others can’t able to know the exact effect of tsunami in eastern Japan. During this period, Peoples information needs are dramatically increased and they are all more depend on media than any other.
Critics of Media Dependency Theory:
§ It describes the media role during social changes and crisis
§ Theory is more flexible and descriptive
§ Power of media dependency is not clearly described
§ It’s difficult to prove scientifically or experimentall

Cultivation theory

Originally proposed by Gerbner and Gross:

Cultivation theory states that high frequency viewers of television are more susceptible to media messages and they belief that they are real and valid.The combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and ultimately for our culture as a whole.Gerbner classified into two groups.Heavy watchers and light watchers.He predicted that heavy viewers saw the world as more dangerous than light viewers.Cultivation theory predicts not the direct impact on our thinking regarding some issues but very way we view the world.

This heavy viewer ship of TV (or any media) cultivates these attitudes within viewers. Whether the attitudes are correct or incorrect is still open to discussion and gets to the question of to what extent reality shapes TV and vice versa. Certainly a theory and by no means a proven fact, but an interesting one nonetheless.

Strengths :

1)Provides detailed explanations of T.V's Role

2)Provided basis for social change

3)Redefines effect as more than observable behaviour change

Weaknesses:

1)Assumes homogeneity of TV content

2)Focus on heavy users of TV

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

There are five levels set up in a hierarchy of basic needs. Higher levels of needs exist beyond these needs . The needs for understanding, aesthetic appreciation and purely spiritual needs. The person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied in the levels of the five basic needs, nor the third until the second has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow’s basic needs are as follows:

Physiological Needs:These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person’s search for satisfaction.

Safety Needs:When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and behaviour, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness of their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganisation in the social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe.

Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness:When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging.

Needs for Esteem:When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.

Needs for Self-Actualisation

Multi Step Flow Theory

Friday 10 October 2014

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Tuesday 7 October 2014